Landscape

What are Chalk Downlands: 100 Million Years of History

While the south of England has a notable amount of chalk, globally it’s quite uncommon. The chalk grasslands of Western Europe rank amongst its most biodiverse ecosystems, teeming with varied plants and animals.

Regrettably, only a fraction of these grasslands remain, underscoring the need for preservation. Within the South Downs National Park, a mere 4% comprises chalk grassland.

Chalk grassland emerges specifically on thin soils atop chalk formations, like those in the South Downs. These soils, characterised by efficient drainage and nutrient scarcity, often leach essential minerals due to rainwater.

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Eggerton hillfort
The downlands are dotted with barrows, hill forts, and ancient pathways, providing invaluable insights into prehistoric and ancient human societies.

The ensuing nutrient competition prompts a vast array of plant species to coexist, as no single species dominates completely.

Richer, deeper soils or the addition of fertilizers would disrupt this balance, as dominant plants would overshadow others, leading to biodiversity loss.

Read More: What is Ancient & Planned Countryside?

In these chalk grasslands, the compact, resilient grass plays host to a multitude of flora and fauna. Proper animal grazing is crucial in maintaining the grass’s height and deterring the encroachment of undesirable plants.

Unique Plant Species

Astonishingly, up to 40 distinct plant species might thrive within a single square meter of chalk grassland. Such plant diversity, in turn, supports a wide insect variety.

This includes rare plant species like the round-headed rampion and various orchids, as well as unique butterflies like the Adonis Blue and Chalk Hill Blue. Meanwhile, scrub, comprising shrubs such as hawthorn, blackthorn, and the vibrant yellow-gorse, is also essential.

Lady bedstraw
Despite the nutrient-poor soil, chalk grasslands are incredibly biodiverse. They can support up to 40 different plant species within a single square meter

Its value should not be downplayed, as it provides habitat for numerous plants and animals. Effective conservation and management of scrub are imperative to ensure it doesn’t overly encroach upon these precious grasslands.

Read More: Chalk Horses – One is 3000 Years Old

Characteristic of the English countryside, downland, also known simply as downs, are an environment made up of gently rolling hills, often with exposed areas of calcareous deposits such as chalk.

Incredible Geological Makeup

These environments are home to incredibly delicate ecosystems that support an incredible array of diverse plants and animals. The unique environmental makeup of downlands means that these environments have distinctive characteristics and soil composition that are particular to these landforms.

Map of Downland areas in southern England
Downland areas in southern England

Downlands are known to host unique environmental features, such as seasonal rivers and steep chalk cliff faces, that are created by the incredible geological makeup of these environments.

While the area of downland environments across England has reduced, there are still some great examples of downlands that can be explored across the UK today. 

What Do Downlands Look Like? 

Downlands are a recognisable environment across the English countryside. Composed primarily of grassland habitats, downlands typically are environments of rolling hills that host a diverse array of native flora and fauna. The underlying chalk deposits in the majority of downlands can often be seen at the ground surface level. In some more dramatic cases, chalk cliffs and steep slopes are also a part of downland habitats. 

Chalk downlands in Dorset
The rolling hills and valleys of the downlands have inspired many artists, writers, and poets.

These grassland environments are uniquely delicate ecosystems. Without careful management, these habitats can easily be destroyed. Invasive species offer a constant threat to downland environments, in particular invasive scrubland species.

Read More: How Did the Romans Drain the Fens & Somerset Levels?

Similarly, the introduction of fertilisers or improved pastures to make downlands more agriculturally favourable can disrupt and threaten downlands across the UK. However, downlands are home to an incredible level of diversity. Up to fifty different species of plants can be found in just one square metre of downland environments.

Grass species are a common aspect of downland habitats, and diverse flower species are also a known component of the plant life present on the downlands.

The River Cuckmere rises near Heathfield in East Sussex, on the southern slopes of the Weald. The name of the river probably comes from an Old English word meaning fast-flowing.

Species such as ox eye daisies are often present on the downlands, while species of orchids and rock rose can also accompany the grasses on the downlands. Bird life, including skylarks and meadow pipits make a home on the downlands, while lizards, adders, and insects can be found among the grasses. 

The Building Blocks of the Downlands

The characteristic rolling hills of downlands are created by the unique makeup of the underlying geology of these areas. In downland areas, chalk formations are elevated above other geological formations. A soft substance, these exposed chalk deposits are slowly eroded to create the rolling hills that make up downland areas.

Read More: Ridgeways, our Prehistoric Road System Before Roman Roads

Many of these downland locations also incorporate steep slopes, or even cliffs; the White Cliffs of Dover are one great example of a cliff structure in a downland landscape.  The porous nature of chalk also heavily impacts the downland environment.

Downlands are susceptible to variations in rainfall, and this means that water levels are likely to increase during wetter winter months and fall in the drier and warmer summer period.

River flowing through downland
The River Cuckmere rises near Heathfield in East Sussex, on the southern slopes of the Weald. After crossing the Low Weald area, the Cuckmere creates a gap through the South Downs

This variation created in the water table at different points of the year means that environmental aspects such as seasonally flowing streams and dry valleys are also common on the downlands of Britain.

The porous nature of downlands can mean that it is not uncommon for downlands to have no naturally occuring rivers, ponds, or streams at surface level. However, some of the best trout fishing rivers are chalk streams.

The Soil Found in Downland Environments 

The soil that makes up downland environments are also unique. Built on the chalk deposits characteristic of the downlands is a thin layer of top soil. The weathering and erosion of the chalk that exists under this topsoil layer is known as rendzina. Rendzina is unique in that it doesn’t have the distinguishable  layers found in most soil types.

Ranscombe Farm, Medway on the North Downs. In June, these meadows are covered with chalk grassland flowers.

Instead of these layers, rendzina is a mixture of humus, a substance created from broken down plant matter, and hill wash that rests as a combined mixture above the white chalk deposits.  The unique soil and underlying geological makeup of downland environments helps to create some of the recognisable characteristics of these unique landforms.

Read More: What is Ancient & Planned Countryside?

Ribbed grass patterns are one such characteristic; these grassy environments sometimes cover shallow steps resembling a natural terrace-like structure on the steep slopes of downlands.

Allowing animals to graze on downlands can make these step structures more pronounced as animals walk along the steps. These terrace structures have even come to commonly be referred to as ‘sheep tracks.’

A Land Not Fit for Agriculture 

In the early days of the development of farming communities, there was experimentation in using the open grassy environment of downlands. However, this was quickly abandoned as the land was found to be unsuitable for intensive crop cultivation.

The soil and geological composition of downlands makes the soil nutrient levels poor, and as a result, ineffective for growing quality crops.

Gateway on the South Downs
The South Downs Way between Firle Beacon and Firle Bostal

Similarly, the hills and slopes common on downlands can make agricultural management in these environments difficult.  Land, such as that in nutrient rich valley floors, developed to host more agricultural practices, while downlands remained largely more uncultivated environments.

However, the natural grasses that populated the downlands did provide a good option as a place for grazing animals. However, early experimentation into agriculture on downland environments did have a part to play in creating these habitats.

Threaten by Agriculture

In areas where crops were planted, they depleted the scarce nutrients of these areas, as a result diverse grass species were able to overtake the environment, creating the recognisable grassland environments known today.

Read More: Millions of Years Old, But How Were Gravel Beds Formed?

These open, grassy areas were utilised by early farmers to graze their animals. These grazing activities soon started to form a key element of the downland ecosystem. 

Well managed grazing stock, ensuring that overgrazing doesn’t occur, helps to limit invasive species that compete with the grasses on downland environments and may threaten downland habitats. 

A view across The Weald from the South Downs Way just west of Firle Beacon.

However, in more modern times, downlands have come under threat as advanced agricultural techniques and the development of improved pastures has prompted farmers to move away from natural downlands as grazing land.

In some areas, wild animals such as rabbits and deer help to maintain the grazing level on downlands. However, the threat of disease and increased urbanisation has come to threaten rabbit population numbers across some parts of the UK.

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And ultimately threaten downland environments as the number of grazing animals falls below those required to maintain the downland habitats. As a result, invasive species of shrubs and grasses have begun to gain a significant presence on many  downlands. 

The Wolds 

While downlands, or simply downs, may be the more common term used to describe the unique environment of grasslands, chalk geography and particular soil composition found in areas of the English countryside, the term Wold may cause some confusion.

Areas known as wolds, largely share the same characteristics as downlands. These environments are generally composed of grass covered hills and valleys built upon a layer of calcareous deposits such as chalk or limestone. 

The term wold is can be seen in use for areas of downlands like environment in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire in particular. The difference between wolds and downlands is more an etymological one rather than environmental one.

The term wold is thought to have Germanic origins, while the term downs is a corruption of the Old English word dun, translating to mean hill

Where to Find Downlands Today 

While the range of downlands has reduced over the course of history, and in the modern era downlands face an array of threats, there are still some great examples of downland environments that can be seen across the United Kingdom.

The Salisbury Plain, in Wiltshire and Hampshire, is one of the largest areas of downland remaining in England.

Stonehenge with sheep grazing in front of the stones
Historically, the downlands played a crucial role in agriculture. The thin soils were grazed by sheep, which not only produced wool

Covering an area of roughly 300 square miles, the Salisbury Plain is famous not only for its unique natural environment but also its rich source of archeological discoveries and ancient monuments. The Dorset Downs are another significant area of downland environment. These downlands are home to the calcareous grasslands typical of downlands and also play host to a number of seasonal rivers and streams.

The Hills

The North Downs reaching across Surrey and Kent form part of the downland associated with the famous landmark, the White Cliffs of Dover.

Read More: Meare Heath Trackway: A Bronze Age Structure

The North Downs includes some significant areas of high ground, including Botley Hill in Surrey which reaches an elevation of 890 feet above sea level. Large areas of the North Downs are also recognised as Areas of Outstanding Beauty. The long-distance path, The North Downs Trail, opened in 1978 runs across the North Downs, reaching from Farnham in Surrey to Dover in Kent. 

Covering roughly 260 square miles, the South Downs form a great example of an English downland environment. Stretching from Hampshire to Sussex, the South Downs has been recognised as a highly important area of chalk landscape, and is a part of Southern England’s main areas of chalk downlands environments.

The South Downs has supported human populations since ancient times, and today forms a popular location for outdoor recreational pursuits. 

The Uniquely Fragile World of Downlands

Downlands are an incredible part of the English landscape. The open grasslands and rolling hills characteristic of downlands have become a recognisable feature of the natural beauty of the English countryside.

Disused water meadow sluice in Dorset
Disused water meadow sluice. Chalk downlands are full of water meadows

Composed of unique soil makeups, these environments support a wide array of plants and animals and offer an unrivalled level of biodiversity. Downlands, built on largely calcareous deposits of chalk or limestone create unique environmental features that are part of what makes these areas so recognisable. 

Read More: What is Heathland?

Known as downlands and as wolds, these incredible natural places can still be visited across the UK today. Great examples of downland environments can be explored in areas as far afield as Surrey to Dorset. While many downland environments are facing a multitude of threats, the uniqueness and fragility of these amazing habitats only makes their protection all the more important.

Millions of Years in the Making

Chalk downlands stand as a testament to the intricate dance of geological, climatic, and biological processes spanning millions of years. These unique landscapes owe their existence to a series of distinct events. It all began with the formation of chalk, a soft, white, porous sedimentary rock.

This rock is primarily composed of the skeletal remains of minuscule marine organisms called coccolithophores. Over vast spans of time, as these organisms met their end, their remains settled at the seabed, layering and compacting to give birth to the chalk strata we recognize today.

prehistoric Silbury hill
Silbury Hill, located in Wiltshire, England, and part of the complex of Neolithic monuments around Avebury, is largely made of chalk. It is the largest prehistoric man-made mound in Europe and was constructed around 2400 BC

However, the narrative didn’t end there. Tectonic forces, in their relentless motion, thrust these chalk layers above the sea, exposing them to the atmosphere and its weathering prowess.

Moreover, the icy grip of the ice ages, although never directly touching the entirety of the UK where many of these downlands lie, left its mark. The northern ice caps and the frigid climate ushered in periglacial processes, molding the chalk terrains further.

But water, too, carved its signature on these landscapes. The permeability of chalk meant rivers and streams etched out dry valleys within, leaving behind areas devoid of surface streams, but rich in underground water systems.

Sprawling Grasslands

Humans, ever the architects of change, also left an indelible mark on chalk downlands. Ancient societies, in their quest for agricultural land, cleared vast swathes of forests that once blanketed these regions.

The subsequent overgrazing, especially by sheep, stymied the forests’ return. With the soil being thin and the chalk bedrock looming just below, trees found it tough to reclaim their dominion, paving the way for sprawling grasslands.

This unique combination of thin soil and chalky foundation fostered a distinct biodiversity. Over the epochs, specific flora evolved to thrive in these conditions, birthing ecosystems teeming with a mix of grasses, herbs, and vibrant wildflowers.

Such ecosystems, naturally, attracted a diverse array of fauna, adapted and fine-tuned to their environment. In their undulating grace, chalk downlands, rich in biodiversity, stand as monuments to both nature’s processes and human intervention.

While glacial erosion did not play a direct role in forming chalk downlands, especially considering that areas known for these landscapes, such as the south of England, remained untouched by glaciers during the last ice age.

Ice Ages

The imprint of glaciation and its associated processes is evident in the shaping and influence of the chalk downland terrain. Notably, though glaciers didn’t extend to regions like the South Downs, these areas still experienced the effects of periglacial processes, which transpire at the glacier’s edges.

In these periglacial environments, the ground often froze, initiating processes such as frost heaving and freeze-thaw weathering. The latter, with its cyclical nature, led to the fragmentation of rocks and greatly influenced soil movement.

Another process, solifluction, which describes the slow, downward flow of water-saturated materials due to the ground’s repeated freezing and thawing, played a role in shaping chalk downlands.

This could result in the creation of lobes and terraces, predominantly on sloping terrains. Furthermore, the unique dry valleys characterizing chalk downlands may have roots in periglacial processes.

There’s a theory suggesting that during colder epochs when the chalk froze and became impermeable, surface waters ran off, etching these valleys into the land. With a subsequent rise in temperatures, the thawed chalk regained its permeability, allowing water to seep away and leaving these valleys parched.

Additionally, at the feet of slopes within chalk terrains, one often finds head deposits. These accumulations of jagged rock fragments, borne from freeze-thaw actions, marked the periglacial conditions of bygone times.

The distinctiveness of chalk downlands can be attributed to a synergy between the chalk bedrock’s natural characteristics and the external forces, especially those tied to periglacial processes, sculpting its features over millennia.

The next time you are on the downlands, stop a while, and look around.